Rapamycin, Metformin, and Other Potential Anti-Ageing Drugs

Ageing is a complex biological process associated with cellular damage, inflammation, metabolic changes, and declining tissue function. Scientists are investigating whether certain drugs can delay age-related diseases and extend healthspan, the period of life spent in good health.

Rapamycin, also known as sirolimus, is a promising candidate because it inhibits the mTOR pathway, which regulates cell growth, protein synthesis, and autophagy. Studies in laboratory animals have demonstrated lifespan extension, but its ability to extend human lifespan remains unproven. Potential adverse effects include immunosuppression, mouth ulcers, elevated cholesterol, and impaired wound healing.

Metformin is widely used to treat type 2 diabetes. It influences glucose metabolism, cellular energy signalling, and pathways associated with inflammation and ageing. Although observational studies suggest possible health benefits, clinical evidence does not establish that metformin extends lifespan in healthy individuals. Gastrointestinal symptoms and vitamin B12 deficiency are recognized adverse effects.

Other drugs and compounds under investigation for their potential anti-ageing effects include acarbose, a diabetes medication that has extended lifespan in certain mouse studies; canagliflozin, an SGLT2 inhibitor investigated for longevity effects in animals; and senolytics, such as dasatinib combined with quercetin, which are studied for their ability to eliminate senescent cells that accumulate with age. Human evidence for senolytic treatments remains preliminary.

NAD+ precursors, including nicotinamide riboside and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), are being studied for their potential to support cellular energy metabolism. However, evidence that they meaningfully extend human lifespan is lacking. Aspirin has also been investigated for healthy ageing, but preventive use in older adults without a clear medical indication may cause more harm than benefit, particularly through bleeding.

Other candidates include GLP-1 receptor agonists, such as semaglutide, which can improve metabolic health and reduce cardiovascular risks in eligible patients, and 17α-estradiol, which has shown longevity-related effects in certain animal models but is not an established anti-ageing treatment.

In conclusion, rapamycin and metformin remain important subjects of geroscience research, alongside several other drugs and compounds. However, none has been conclusively demonstrated to extend the lifespan of healthy humans when used specifically for anti-ageing purposes. These medicines should be used according to established medical indications, and experimental longevity treatments should be considered only with appropriate medical guidance and clinical evidence.

The Science of Happiness: Evidence-Based Medical Strategies for Better Mental Health

Happiness is influenced by biology, psychology, lifestyle and social relationships. Medical research offers practical ways to support emotional well-being and improve quality of life.

Happiness is more than a temporary feeling. It involves emotional well-being, the ability to manage stress, meaningful relationships and a sense of purpose. Although no medical intervention can guarantee constant happiness, research in neuroscience, psychology and preventive medicine has identified several strategies that can support a healthier and more stable emotional state.

1. Exercise and Brain Chemistry

Regular physical activity is associated with improved mood and reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression. Exercise influences several biological systems involved in emotional regulation, including neurotransmitter signaling, stress responses and brain plasticity.

Aerobic activities such as walking, cycling and swimming can improve mood, while resistance training may also reduce depressive symptoms. Adults should generally aim for 150 to 300 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week, adjusted to their health and physical abilities.

Even a short daily walk can provide structure, encourage exposure to natural light and create opportunities for social interaction. Consistency matters more than pursuing an extreme exercise routine.

2. Sleep and Emotional Stability

Sleep is essential for regulating emotions, attention, memory and stress. Inadequate sleep can increase irritability, impair decision-making and make ordinary challenges feel more difficult.

Most adults need at least seven hours of sleep each night. Maintaining a consistent sleep schedule, limiting caffeine later in the day and creating a dark, quiet sleeping environment can improve sleep quality.

Persistent insomnia or excessive daytime sleepiness may indicate a condition that requires medical assessment. Treating an underlying sleep disorder can improve both physical health and emotional functioning.

3. Nutrition and Mental Health

The brain requires a steady supply of nutrients to function properly. A balanced diet containing vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, adequate protein and healthy fats supports general health and may contribute to better mental well-being.

Research has found associations between Mediterranean-style dietary patterns and better mental health outcomes. Some clinical trials also suggest that dietary improvement can help reduce depressive symptoms in certain people, particularly when used alongside appropriate treatment.

Nutrient deficiencies, including deficiencies of vitamin B12 or iron, can sometimes contribute to fatigue, concentration difficulties or mood changes. Testing and supplementation are most useful when a deficiency is suspected or confirmed. No particular food or supplement guarantees happiness, and high doses of vitamins can cause harm.

4. Stress Management and the Nervous System

Chronic stress can affect sleep, concentration, cardiovascular health and emotional regulation. Stress-management techniques can help people respond more effectively to difficult situations.

Slow breathing, mindfulness meditation and progressive muscle relaxation are practical approaches supported by research for reducing stress and anxiety symptoms. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help people identify unhelpful thought patterns and develop more effective ways of responding to challenges.

These techniques do not eliminate life's difficulties. Their purpose is to improve the ability to manage them without allowing stress to dominate everyday life.

5. Social Connections and Emotional Health

Human beings benefit from meaningful social relationships. Supportive friendships, family connections and community participation are associated with better mental health and lower risks associated with social isolation.

Regular conversations, shared activities and opportunities to help others can provide belonging and emotional support. Quality is often more important than the number of relationships.

Loneliness that persists despite social contact can also be a sign of emotional distress. Speaking with a trusted person or mental health professional may help identify the underlying causes.

6. Dopamine, Reward and Everyday Pleasure

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in motivation, learning and reward processing. However, happiness is not controlled by dopamine alone. Other brain systems, hormones, personal experiences and environmental factors also influence mood.

Activities such as learning a skill, completing a meaningful task, exercising and spending time with loved ones can provide rewarding experiences. By contrast, repeatedly seeking intense stimulation through gambling, compulsive online behaviour or substance use can create difficulties for some people.

A sustainable approach to well-being involves balancing enjoyable experiences with meaningful activities, adequate rest and realistic goals.

7. When Medical Treatment Is Necessary

Persistent sadness, loss of interest, hopelessness, changes in appetite, sleep disturbances or difficulty functioning may indicate depression rather than an ordinary period of low mood.

Depression is a treatable medical condition. Depending on its severity and the person's circumstances, treatment may include psychotherapy, medication such as antidepressants, or a combination of approaches. A qualified clinician can assess symptoms, consider other medical causes and recommend appropriate care.

Seeking treatment is not a sign of weakness. It is a practical step toward improving health and functioning.

Conclusion: Happiness as a Foundation of Health

Happiness cannot be maintained at the same level every day, and experiencing sadness, frustration or anxiety is a normal part of being human. The goal is not to eliminate difficult emotions but to develop the physical health, psychological skills and social support needed to navigate them.

Regular exercise, sufficient sleep, balanced nutrition, stress management and meaningful relationships provide a strong foundation for emotional well-being. When symptoms become persistent or interfere with daily life, evidence-based mental health treatment can offer additional support.

Lasting well-being is rarely the result of a single breakthrough. It develops through a combination of healthy habits, supportive relationships, realistic expectations and appropriate medical care.